Abstract

This paper outlines the Grounded Theory (GT) approach used in a doctoral thesis on business and brand development strategies employed by foreign brand businesses in emerging impeded markets. Additionally, it aims to show the usefulness of the GT approach in researching emerging impeded markets, using the Myanmar market as a case study. The GT approach has been chosen because: it is premature for theory testing given the paucity of research regarding the specific area of the study; secondly, the market in question is highly complex; and thirdly; this approach enables the researcher to understand the 'lived experience' of people in the case study. The process of the inquiry comprises five phases: research design, data collection, data ordering, data analysis and literature comparison (see Pandit, 1996). A topic list designed to facilitate a dialogue with the participants has been adapted from a strategic planning process model developed by Reid (1989), influenced by Abell and Hammond (1979). The study has several novel aspects. The researcher approached the field of study prior to the derivation of a conceptual framework so as to develop a contextual basis to allow for the study to focus on what is relevant to the participants in the particular local context. This approach also facilitated the development of a database of companies willing to participate, which otherwise would not have been possible. The strategy of 'theoretically sampling' the participants was helped by snowball sampling and leveraging contacts through professional and social networks. The data was content-analysed using NUD*IST and the emergent theory compared with the existing literature to answer an important academic question of "can the existing literature explain foreign participation in impeded markets such as Myanmar?"

Introduction

The main aim of the paper is to present and discuss a particular methodology selected and adapted in order to answer the research question of the study. The paper begins by discussing and defining the question of 'Impeded markets' with reference to the Myanmar market in particular. This is followed by a discussion of the difficulties involved in conducting research in impeded markets. Next, the discussion of research design begins by identifying the chosen ontology, epistemology and methodology before turning to the usefulness and appropriateness of the grounded theory approach for the particular study. The process of developing grounded theory from the collected data is designed to meet the particular demands and objectives of the study. The process undertaken is eclectic and largely influenced by first, Miles and Humberman's (1994) approach to Focusing and Bounding the Collection of Qualitative data and second, the process of Building Grounded Theory outlined by Pandit (1996). There are twelve phases which constitute the theory building process.

Background

International perceptions of Myanmar (formerly known as Burma) are dominated by that nation’s controversial politics and its notoriety as a major opium producer. Because of the ‘unfavourable’ impression the international community holds of Myanmar, it has been a major challenge for foreign businesses to operate in the country without attracting criticism. Questions have arisen as to whether or not it is ethical for foreign businesses (especially trans-national corporations) to operate in Myanmar and to deal with its repressive military government, a regime which has been condemned by the international ‘community’ (especially by institutions and governments from the West) for human rights abuses and an alleged involvement in the global drug trade. As a result, the decision to engage, or not to engage, with repressive regimes such as the government of Myanmar have complex ethical dimensions. The complexity of these ethical dilemmas has been evident in the diverging responses of international state actors. The US and the European Union (EU), have, to some extent, adopted a policy of “isolation” in regard to Myanmar, while other governments and business communities, many of them located within Asia, have suggested an alternate ‘constructive’ institutional and economic engagement with Myanmar (Anonymous 1996).

Undoubtedly, the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) is the most influential voice in international affairs to have argued strongly for a policy of ‘constructive engagement’ with Myanmar. ASEAN admitted Myanmar as a member in 1997 despite the policy of “isolation” adopted by the US government and the EU (Masaki 1997). As a result, there has been a widening gap between Asian and Western governments on the Myanmar ‘issue.’ To an unusual extent, these apparent political and international ‘externalities’ are crucial, indeed unavoidable, factors in terms of the operation and entry of international businesses in an already challenging ‘transitional’ economy such as Myanmar.

Although Myanmar remains an international political pariah, there have been some indications that change is possible —at least in terms of economics. There are signs of rekindling business awareness, including the re-establishment of seemingly forgotten brand preferences and the creation of new ones. The study will focus on this aspect of the re-introduction of old foreign consumer brands and introduction of new ones to the Myanmar market.

Although the Myanmar economy is not an example of government-led industrialisation, it is a case of industrialisation proceeding according to governmental rules. It is all the more noteworthy, therefore, that so much business activity takes place beyond the bounds of the normal legal regime. This does not merely involve smuggling, although this activity is economically significant. It also includes the marketing of goods and services from countries that are obligated not to do business in Myanmar or, at least, do not officially wish to acknowledge their presence there. The preliminary fieldwork study reveals that a great deal of business activity takes place in an atmosphere which is in some ways closer to the “black” market than the legitimate market. Consequently, the business strategies adopted by these companies in this situation are radically modified and do not comply with standard practice. Nonetheless, irrespective of how the brands are brought into the country and who is responsible, many of the leading consumer goods brands are well represented in the retailing trade of the major towns in Myanmar. Unravelling this intriguing situation is the thrust of the study.

Researching impeded markets

Conducting research in countries such as Myanmar is not only difficult, but unique, due to a particularly complex political and economic situation. Several issues arose from undertaking research, especially data collection, in a country ruled by an autocratic, repressive regime.

Security and safeguarding issues are paramount. In this respect, merely conducting research under these circumstances is impeded. First of all, as (Morse, 1994) suggested, the researcher has to gain the trust of the potential participants. In this case, many participants were those who did not wish to let anyone outside Myanmar learn of their presence in Myanmar, and therefore, they could be suspicious of the researcher's genuine intent. The researcher was likely to be thought of as a potential spy. A few participants revealed negative experiences with foreign journalists under the guise of 'academic' research. To gain trust and win cooperation, connections were leveraged and interviewees were guaranteed anonymity.

Thus, it was vital that the researcher brought along supporting documents from the thesis committee. The participants were promised anonymity and confidentiality. The audiotapes and transcripts were equally safeguarded and archived for the required period of time. To remain on the issue of trust, some of the respondents were reluctant to reveal commercially and politically sensitive data as well as their true opinion of the ruling body. One way to overcome this is crosschecking with other sources of data. Nonetheless, these shortcomings were acknowledged in the study.

Methodology

A qualitative methodology was chosen for the study. A qualitative methodology emphasises "processes and meanings that are not rigorously examined, or measured (if measured at all), in terms of quantity, amount, intensity, or frequency." (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994). They explain the nature of qualitative research as value-laden and emphasises "how social experience is created and given meaning". The strategy chosen to investigate the issue is the grounded theory approach since the study is interested in understanding the social phenomenon and process.

The grounded theory approach

The Grounded theory approach (GT) is a qualitative research approach developed by Glaser and Strauss in 1967. The GT methodology develops theory that is "grounded in data systematically gathered and analysed." (Glaser and Strauss, 1967).

The purposes of GT, as identified by Burca and McLoughlin (1998) , are:

1. to offer the rationale for theory that was grounded

2. to suggest the logic for and specifics of grounded theories

3. to legitimate qualitative research.

The grounded theory methodology has been employed in organizational research by some notable authors (Martin and Turner, 1986; Segev, 1988; Adler et al. 1989; Sarros, 1992; Simon, 1993; Linstead, 1997). As an example, there are two articles most closely aligned to this study. Firstly, Adler, Campbell and Laurent (1989)'s experience in researching China revealed that a western-based research instrument had a limited applicability to foreign markets such as China. Thus, from their own experience, they recommended the use of emergent methodologies worthy of an inquiry into places profoundly different in terms of culture, politics and economics. One other similar study is that of Dougherty (1990) who developed empirically grounded theory of why understanding new markets is difficult for innovators in large firms.

Why GT approach was chosen for the study?

The three primary reasons why the GT approach was used in the study. Firstly, the study's area of interest is not only complex but also non-transparent. This is because: 1. Much of the business activities take place beyond the bounds of the legal restrictions of the regime (eg, border trade, repatriation of the profit, payment for exported goods and so on), 2. The mode of presence in the country by foreign businesses is complicated and at times obscure, 3. Foreign businesses exhibit differing motivations and aspirations (or lack of them) for the Myanmar market. Secondly, hypothesis testing is highly premature for this type of study as the field of study is relatively new and thus there is little theory to postulate hypotheses. While there are a limited number of similar research studies conducted into multinational corporations' behaviour in impeded markets (eg Vietnam, South Africa, Cuba, Iran etc.), few academic researchers have taken an interest in Myanmar, especially in the area of foreign consumer brand development. Thus, the study has to be exploratory in nature and aims to contribute to a better understanding of this somewhat neglected area of inquiry. Thirdly, this quality of the GT approach meets the demands of the study because the study investigates the process of building a foreign brand-based business in the Myanmar context. In other words, it was the participants' experiences and meanings regarding what it was like managing and marketing foreign consumer brands in the Myanmar market that the researcher aims to understand.

The next section discusses the process of grounded theory building designed to meet the particular demands and objectives of the study. The process undertaken is eclectic and largely influenced by first, Miles and Humberman (1994)’s approach to Focusing and Bounding the Collection of Qualitative data and second, the process of Building Grounded Theory outlined by Pandit (1996).

The process of grounded theory building

Phase 1: Preliminary conceptual framework

According to Miles and Huberman (1994), a conceptual framework:

…explains, either graphically or in narrative form, the main things to be studied--the key factors, constructs or variables--and the presumed relationships among them. Frameworks can be rudimentary or elaborate, theory-driven or commonsensical, descriptive or causal.

Figure (1) graphically displays the study's initial conceptual framework, which is loosely framed, but it is designed to evolve and gradually develop into a more specific framework.

Ethical Dilemmas. There are two opposing views relating to foreign businesses operating in an embargoed country like Myanmar. Robbins et al (2000) highlighted two alternative views-- the 'classical view' where management’s only social responsibility was to maximize profits, and the 'socioeconomic view', where social responsibility went well beyond the making of profits to include protecting and improving society’s welfare. Internationally, Myanmar was considered to be a political ‘pariah’, and foreign businesses operating in Myanmar were being cautioned by some shareholders to be more sensitive to human rights issues surrounding the Myanmar regime. In this regard, some shareholders wanted businesses to be more transparent about their dealings with the country (Anonymous, 1996b). Adding complexity to this situation, businesses were required to comply with Myanmar government policy and regulation, and foreign businesses often need the Myanmar government’s patronage and assistance in setting up businesses in a particular social and economic context.

Consumer Boycotts. Some of the companies doing business in Myanmar were under direct threat (or have the perception of “threat”) of consumer boycott in other “home” countries due to the intervention and activism of international and national human rights organisations. Perhaps the most publicised case of disinvestment was that of Pepsi's withdrawal from Myanmar. In 1997, Pepsi Co. responded to vigorous protests made by college students on campuses in the US by pulling out of Myanmar (Anonymous 1997). Similarly, Carlsberg, the Danish beer company, was reported to have cancelled plans to build a joint-venture brewery (Fairclough 1996). Around the same time, another European beer company, Heineken, also left Myanmar (Humphreys 1996). Other major US retail/consumer goods companies such as Liz Claiborne, Macy's, Reebok, Eddie Bauer, Levi Strauss, J. Crew, and Apple Computers, soon followed suit by pulling out of Myanmar (Anonymous 1995) (Schermerhorn 1997).

Home Country Policies. In response to sustained pressure by various human rights and pro-democracy campaigners, the Clinton Administration imposed sanctions against Myanmar on April 22, 1997 (Finch 1997). In addition, the ‘selective purchasing’ law was proposed by the US State of Massachusetts in the late 1990s, which banned the State of Massachusetts from doing business with companies that were also conducting business in Myanmar. One county and eighteen cities followed suit and issued their own selective-purchasing laws to boycott all companies operating in Myanmar (Carvajal 1998). According to Than (1999, p220) the US business community held concerns about these restrictions, which in their view, were unlikely to impact upon the Myanmar regime, but more likely to penalise the Myanmar people.

Host Country Policies. Than (1999) provided an overview of Myanmar’s government’ trade policies as follows. Order No. 5/98 issued by The Ministry of Commerce in Myanmar stipulated a ban of imports of a list of items which were considered non-essential or luxury goods. Further restrictions were imposed on border trade via China, Thailand, India and Bangladesh. These restrictions saw a decline in both normal trade and a border trade towards the end of 1998.

Given the conflicting expectations and obligations imposed on the businesses (especially from Western governments) discussed above, US and EU companies have opted for business entry and development strategies which do not require their direct involvement or which have not revealed direct links to the brand owners. The focus of this study was the operational level entry and development strategies of international businesses in Myanmar.

Phase 2: Research question

Miles and Huberman (1994)'s approach to focusing and bounding the qualitative inquiry entails that formulating research questions is a direct step from conceptual framework and the research questions "operationalise the conceptual framework". While formulating research question(s), the researcher is beginning to make decisions regarding what to focus and what not to focus and, sampling and instrumentation issues including the potential participants, the setting, the context and so on.

The study's research question is:

How do brand-based businesses develop their businesses and market their international consumer brands in the Myanmar market in the face of the uncertain political and peculiar economic problems facing the country?

Phase 3: Instrumentation

Miles & Huberman (1994, p-36) define instrumentation as:

…comprises specific methods for collecting data: They may be focused on qualitative or quantitatively organised information, and may be loosely to tightly structured.

The researcher only used a list of open-ended questions in interviewing the participants. The questions derived from the model developed by Reid (1989) , influenced by Abell and Hammond (1979) , was used as an instrument to assist in interviewing. However, the questions were "redesigned as new questions, new sub-samples, and new lines of inquiry develop" (Miles and Huberman, 1994, p-38).

Table (1) shows a list of topics used to guide the interviews:

Table 1

Extract from a list of topics used in the study

Review of experience in: Myanmar and Elsewhere

Major issues impacting on foreign companies in Burma

Burmese as consumers

Market developments foreseen in the country

Competitive situation

Behaviour of brand-owners and other middle men involved in marketing the brand

Strengths and Weaknesses as foreign provider

Vision for the business

Advice for foreign managers

Questions not already asked that you expected

OK to Quote?

Phase 4: Preliminary Fieldtrip to Myanmar

Travelling to Myanmar at an early stage of the study was necessary and purposeful. The main reasons for the trip included: 1. The researcher first of all needed to find out if it was at all possible to collect the data in Myanmar and, if it was, how to go about it; 2. Prior to the real data collection task, the researcher also needed to establish contacts and networks as fieldwork success eminently depended on introductions and leads; 3. Given the paucity of information in the area, the researcher was unsure about exactly, "who were the most relevant people to target?" until the researcher gained some experience in the field; 4. Because of the complexity and the opaqueness involved with international brand owners' dealings with Myanmar, a clear picture concerning what is to be investigated can only emerge by gathering some observations and after several interviews were conducted.

Phase 5: Bounding the Territory: Defining the case

According to Miles and Humberman (1994), a case is the unit of analysis. They graphically show “a case” as "a focus, or heart of the study, and a somewhat indeterminate boundary defines the edge of the case: what will not be studied." While the researcher should begin the fieldwork with the most relevant case or cases, he or she is also advised to go outward from the centre in order to involve the cases which are not directly relevant, which Miles & Huberman (1994, p-34) call the peripheries.

The case for the study was more specifically defined after the initial fieldwork. Figure (2) shows in graphic form the study's heart and its boundaries:

Figure 2: the case and the boundary in the study

As shown in Figure (2), the heart of the study is the distributor of foreign consumer brands. This is because in the majority of the cases, owing to the absence of brand owners in the country, the brands are represented by the distributors, and the distributors are often the ones who have most dealings with the brand owners abroad. In addition, the distributors often perform the task of importing the goods into Myanmar and retailing in the country. Not all distributors are foreign; some are local. The study purposely selected not only the sole or appointed dealers/distributors of foreign consumer brands but also the obscure ones who did not necessarily deal directly or even indirectly with the brand-owners. Similarly, it also included both exclusive single brand distributors as well as distribution giants handling multiple brands. The sample was chosen to include significant proportions of brands of Asian, European and US origins.

There are two main reasons for the broad centre, represented by the star in Figure 2. First, due to Myanmar's relative newness as a site of foreign activity and inherent risk factors in dealing with the country, many brand-owners are not yet 'fully' participating in the country in the more conventional way experienced in established markets. Thus, there are few sole or officially appointed dealers/distributors. Secondly, the pilot fieldwork study shows that the majority of brand dealers/distributors are not official in the sense that their relationship with the brand-owners is opaque. For these reasons, at the early stage of data collection, the scope for sampling was kept broad.

After defining the most relevant cases (the centre of the study), the study also concerns itself with two layers of peripherals. The first layer involves importers, retailers and supermarkets and the second layer, involves advertising agencies, market research houses, area experts, relevant regulatory bodies and even some large local brand manufacturers and retailers.

Phase 6: Bounding the territory: Sampling

Sampling in qualitative research is deliberate, instead of at random (Kuzel, 1992; Morse, 1989; Morse, 1989). Further, Miles and Huberman (1994, p-27) explain that sampling in qualitative research is "conceptually-driven sequential sampling". By this, they mean that the sample is not predefined beforehand, but it is gradually developed as the fieldwork progresses. For example, early informants guide the researcher to other comparable or contrasting cases.

Sampling is the next stage after the generation of a research question(s) and focusing and bounding the territory (Miles and Humberman, 1994, p-27). Data collection will be guided by the principles of 'theoretical sampling'. Theoretical sampling, as explained by Strauss & Corbin (1990, p. 192), is "sampling on the basis of concepts that have proven theoretical relevance to the evolving theory" and therefore, in a GT study, "unlike the sampling done in quantitative investigations, theoretical sampling cannot be planned before embarking on a grounded theory study. The specific sampling decisions evolve during the research process itself".

Accordingly, the initial interviews will be analysed in order to identify emergent concepts. As the fieldwork progresses, informants will be sought in terms of who can provide further information on the emerging concepts. This also avoids collecting unnecessary data, and thus resources are conserved and allow the researcher to maintain control rather than "drowning in data" (Morse, 1994).

In terms of securing leads as well as introductions, snowball sampling and Maximum Variety sampling will be used. In snowball sampling, the sample is gathered through a chain referral (Bernard, 1994; Biernacki and Waldorf, 1981; Burt and Ronchi, 1994; Rothbart, 1982; Sudman, 1986; Sudman, 1988). Maximum variety sampling, as explained by Patton (1990) , entails deliberately selecting a heterogeneous sample and looking for similarities and differences in their experiences. Two types of data are obtained using this technique: firstly, information-rich case descriptions, which provides uniqueness of each case; secondly, it enables the researcher to identify similarities across participants (Morse, 1994).

Phase 7: Computer use and data management

The transcripts will be content analysed using NUD*IST (Non-numerical Unstructured Data* Indexing Searching and Theorizing) as an analytical tool, a computer software program for qualitative data analysis (Richards and Richards, 1994). NUD*IST supports analysing data according to the principles of grounded theory (Bazeley, 1997; Crawford, 1997; Hart, 1997; Prothero, 1996; Richards and Richards, 1991; Richmond, 1997).

Phase 8: Agreements with study participants

Miles and Huberman (1994, p-47-49) discuss this issue in terms of: 1. the nature and extent of the informants' participation; 2. privacy and confidentiality of their participation and the information dispensed; 3. availability of the study's findings and final reports; and 4. Last but not least, what the participants will (or will not) get out of the study. In this study, the participants were assured full anonymity and confidentiality. In terms of the demands upon their time required by the study, they were informed that, if needed, the researcher might have to come back a second time to follow up on certain issues. Almost all participants agreed to grant a second interview. The participants were also informed that the final findings of the study will be produced in a form of a doctoral thesis.

Phase 9: Data Collection Phase

Much of the activities in this phase, as discussed before, is governed by the principle of theoretical sampling. Where sources of data are concerned, the GT approach requires the use of multiple data sources surrounding what is to be investigated. In the study, in addition to interview data, the study used sources which included both official and unofficial statistics, company publications, informal meetings and conversations, observations, even a local gossip mill and so on. However, the plan to conduct focus groups with consumers from a wide ranging demographic backgrounds was dashed due to the eruption of political disturbances which took place during the fieldwork in August-September 1998.

Phase 10: Data ordering Phase

A daily write-up of a fieldwork journal is vital. Writing Contact Summary Sheets and Reflective Notes, as suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994, p.-50-67), facilitated this process.

Phase 11: Data Analysis Phase

The next step was to analyse the data. As mentioned earlier, data collection and data analysis are simultaneous and the grounded theorist move between the two processes. GT data analysis method is dominated by the process of coding, which Strauss and Corbin (1990, p. 57) defines as:

The operations by which data are broken down, conceptualised, and put back together in new ways. It is the central process by which theories are built from data.

The data was analysed using “open coding”. Strauss and Corbin (1999) define open coding as:

The process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing, and categorizing data

The procedure of open coding involves:

-Labeling phenomena: this involves placing descriptive or conceptual names to emerging issues or themes in the data.

-Discovering categories: this involves clustering similar concepts (developed in the first stage) so as to reduce the number of concepts. Names given to categories are more conceptual or theoretical than those of the concepts developed in the first stage.

-Developing properties and dimensions of categories: this process involves enriching a category by finding intrinsic specifications (called properties) relating to the category and uncovering the category's dimensions such as frequency, extent, intensity, duration and so on.

NUD*IST in support of the grounded theory approach

NUD*IST features the three coding process: "open coding" (identifies categories, their properties and dimensions); "axial coding" (makes connections between categories and sub-categories); and "selective coding" (selects a core category and relates all other major categories both to the core category and each other) (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). NUD*IST is a powerful tool in terms of asking questions of the data, and uncovering relationships among the categories because its features such as “matrix searches” and “vectors” allow the user to explore, examine and test the emerging ideas (Bazeley, 1997).

Memo writing

Throughout this process of theory development, there is one process a grounded theorist engages in from the start to the end of the inquiry. It is none other than writing memos. In doing so, the researcher goes into the mode of data analysis straight from the beginning of the fieldwork. Memos record elaborations of, and provisional linkages about, codes and categories. According to Glaser (1978, p.83), memos are:

"the theorising write‑up of ideas about codes and their relationships as they strike the analyst while coding"

Glaser advocates that, the moment the idea flashes in his or her mind, a researcher should record them so that the ideas on the fly are captured. Glaser (1978) identified the following benefits gained from writing memos in theory development:

1. It raises the data to a conceptualisation level.

2. It develops the properties of each category which begins to define it operationally.

3. It presents hypotheses about connections between categories and/or properties.

4. It begins to integrate these connections with cluster of other categories to generate the theory.

5. Lastly, it begins to locate the emerging theory with other theories with potentially more or less relevance.

Phase 12: Literature Comparison Phase

The next phase is comparing the emerged theory with the existing literature to examine similarities, variations, extensions, contradictions and differences. Eisenhardt (1989, p. 545) states:

Overall, tying the emergent theory to existing literature enhances the internal validity, generalisability, and theoretical level of the theory building from case study research because the findings often rest on a very limited number of cases.

True to the nature of grounded theory studies, the findings guide the researcher as to which literature to investigate for comparison. In the area of consumer brand business development and marketing strategies, the three layers of literature the study can compare with the emerged theories are as follows:

- Firstly, comparison with the relevant core theories in business development strategies in marketing and management literature will bring to the fore how adequately these western-based theories explain or do not explain what is happening in impeded markets.

- Secondly, comparison with other emerging markets, especially those in Indo-China, will be useful because it may emphasise similarities and differences between these countries.

- Thirdly, literature comparison can be undertaken at a specific level concerning politically troublesome (thus impeded) markets, for example, Vietnam during its sanctioned period.

An overview of preliminary emergent theory of building a foreign consumer brand-based business in Myanmar

Figure 3: Preliminary emergent theory from the study

Figure (3) graphically displays the study's preliminary and emergent findings. For foreign companies, positive factors relating to operating in Myanmar include benefits such as cheap resources, building/nurturing human resources, contacts and networks and maximising brand building opportunity. On the other hand, drawbacks derive from problematic areas such as the risk of consumer boycott, pressure not to do business in Myanmar from the West, Dual exchange rate, import restrictions and profit repatriation. In Myanmar, a foreign consumer brand marketer faces a different kind of competitor - namely, smugglers and border traders. The initial data analysis indicated several areas of major business strategies to be further explored. They are: the international corporations' pre and post entry strategies (eg. Issues involving appointing dealers/distributors and also the nature of the relationship between the brand-owner and the Myanmar office etc.), strategies to handle internal legal, political and financial restrictions and limitations (eg. Securing impossible-to-get import permits, getting the supplies into the country and paying for the goods sold, repatriation of profits, competing with border traders etc.), and, finally, marketing strategies cleverly crafted to maximise the brand exposure in the country while minimising the potential risk of being exposed overseas as a participant in the Myanmar economy.

Reflection

With respect to the GT approach employed in the study, there are two issues I found which were of varying usefulness in the study. First, I found the principles of the GT approach (ie. approaching the study without a priori hypotheses) to be more appropriate and useful in researching an emerging and impeded market such as Myanmar than more conventional methodologies. I also found the process of theoretically sampling the participants to be highly engaging and rewarding as the data became richer. However, as to the question of the usefulness of the GT data analysis method itself, my experience was that it was extremely time-consuming and too demanding in terms of both the researcher and the participants' time and resources. Thus, this purist method of data analysis might not be too practical in terms of business research. Finally, to turn to the question of researching my own birthplace, the benefits, I think (or I hope), will far outweigh the drawbacks and potential risks. I was immensely thankful to my family and friends who went extraordinary lengths to make my fieldwork a success. Likewise, I gratefully acknowledge the generosity (and also the brave hearts) of the participants, without whom the study could not have existed. Deservedly, many thanks also go to the listserve of the on-line NUDIST forum.

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